INTRODUCTION A REVIEW OF THE EMPIRE, WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE COLONIAL WORLD
This chapter is By lady lugard (Lady Flora Lugard (ne Shaw) (1852-1929),
Author and journalist)
1.The land surface of the earth is estimated to extend over about 52,500,000
square miles. Of this area the British Empire occupies nearly one-quarter,
extending over an area of about 12,000,000 square miles.
2. POPULATION- OF THE EMPIRE
The white population of the empire reaches a total of upwards of 52,000,000
or about one-eighth of its entire population, which, including native races,
is estimated at something over 430,000,000. The white population includes
some French, Dutch, and Spanish peoples, but is mainly of Anglo-Saxon race.
It is distributed roughly as follows:
(i)United Kiugdom and Ireland 41,4.54,578
(ii)Australia 4,600,000
(iii)Canada— French 1,400,000 & English 3,800,000
(iv)Africa-Dutch { 1,000,000 (v)British India 100,000
(Vi)West Indies and Bermuda 100,000
Total :52,454,578
The population of India is divided into 118 groups, on the basis of language.
3. Eastern Colonies
(i) Ceylon — High type, brown and mixed 3,391,000
(ii) Straits Settlements — Brown and mixed 267,073
(iii)Chinese yellow 228,000
(iv)Hong-Kong — Chinese yellow 211,000 ,Brown 1,901
(v)North Borneo— Mixed brown 200,000
Of the various races which inhabit these Eastern dependencies the most
important are the 2,000,000 Sinhalese and the 750,000 Tamil that make up
the population of Ceylon. The rest is made up of Malays, Chinese (in the
Straits Settlements and Hong-Kong), Dyaks, Eurasians, and others.
West Indies
The West Indies, including the continental colonies of British Guiana and
Honduras, and seventeen islands or groups of islands, have a total coloured
population of about 1,600,000. The colonies of this group which have the
largest coloured populations are:
(i)Jamaica — Chiefly black, some brown and yellow 635,000
(ii)Trinidad— Black and brown 244,000
(iii)British Guiana — Black and brown 270,000
Total :1,139,000
The populations of the West Indies are very various, being made up largely
of imported African negroes. In Jamaica these contribute four-fifths of
the population. There are also in the islands a considerable number of
imported East Indian coolies and some Chinese. The aboriginal races include
American Indians of the mainland and Caribs. With these there has been
intermixture of Spanish and Portuguese blood, and many mixed types have
appeared. The total European population of this group of colonies amounts
to upwards of 80,000, to which 15,000 on account of Bermuda may be added.
Likewise The population is elaborately enumerated in Africa ,Austarlia
and other colonies too.
Summary
Native Populations of Principal Divisions of the Empire
(i)India 294,874,411
(ii)Ceylon and Eastern Colonies 4,298,974
(iii)West Indies 1,650,000
(iv)South Africa 5,000,000
(v)British Central Africa 3,000,000
(vi)East Africa 6,550,000
(vii)West Africa 40,000,000
(viii)Australasia and Islands 661,000
(ix)Canada 100,000
Total : 356,134,385
and, White populations 52,454,578
Giving a total of 408,588,963
4. IVISIONS AND GROWTH OF THE EMPIRE
It is a matter of first importance in the geographical distribution of the
empire that the five principal divisions, the United Kingdom, South Africa,
India, Australia, and Canada are separated from each other by the three great
oceans of the world. The distance as usually calculated in nautical miles:
(i)from an English port to the Cape of Good Hope is 5,840 miles;
(ii)from the Cape of Good Hope to Bombay is 4,610;
(iii)from Bombay to Melbourne is 5,630;
(iv)from Melbourne to Auckland is 1,830;
(v)from Auckland to Vancouver 6,210;
(vi)from Halifax to Liverpool is 2,744.
(vii)From a British port direct to Bombay by way of the Mediterranean it is 6,272;
(viii)from a British port by the same route to Sydney 11,548 miles.
Look at their meticulous and detailed planning
These great distances have necessitated the acquisition of intermediate ports
suitable for coaling stations on the trade
routes, and have determined the position of many of the lesser crown colonies
which are held simply for military and commercial purposes. Such are the
Bermudas, Gibralter, Malta, Aden, Ceylon, the Straits Settlements, Labuan,
Hong-Kong, which complete the chain of connection on the eastern route,
and such on other routes are the lesser West African stations — Ascension,
St. Helena, the Mauritius, and Seychelles, the Falklands, Tristan d'Acunha,
and the groups of the western Pacific.
Some of the latest annexations of the British Empire have been rocky islets
of the northern Pacific required for the purpose of telegraph stations in
connection with an all-British cable.
For purposes of political administration the empire falls into the three
sections of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with the
depend- encies of the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man; the Indian Empire,
con- sisting of British India and the feudatory native states; and the
colonial empire, comprising all other colonies and dependencies.
5.The following list of British colonies and dependencies shows the date and
manner of their acquisition was through, settlement ,capitulation, conquering,
ceding and purchasing, military occupation by cession, occupation by treaty,
Cession,by international agreement.High commission created by order in council,
giving jurisdiction over islands not included in other colonial governments,
nor within jurisdiction of other civilised powers. Treaty, conquest, and settlement
under royal charter. Transferred to crown, Protectorate declared. Lease ,
Annexation, legal charter etc
6. The Indian section of the empire was acquired during the same three
centuries under a royal charter granted to the East India Company by Queen
Elizabeth in 1600. It was transferred to the imperial government in 1858,
and Queen Victoria was proclaimed empress under the Royal Titles Act in 1877.
The following list gives the dates and methods of acquisition of the centres
of the main divisions of the Indian Empire. They have, in most instances,
grown by general process of ex-tension to their present dimensions.
The nine provinces are:
Name: Date Method of acquisition
1.Madras ……1639-1748 By treaty and subsequent conquest.
Fort St. George, tbe foundation of Madras, was the first
territorial possession of the East India Company in India.
It was acquired by treaty with its Indian ruler.
Madras was raised into a presidency in 1683 ; ceded to Prance 1746 ; recovered 1748.
2.Bombay .... 1608-1685 By Treaty and cession.
Trade first established 1608. Ceded to British crown by Portugal 1661.
Trans- ferred to East India Company 1668. Presidency removed from Surat 1685.
3.Bengal .... 1633-1765 by Treaty and subsequent conquests.
First trade settlement estabhshed by treaty at Pipli in Orissa 1633.
Erected into presidency by separation from Madras 1681 . Virtual sovereignty
announced by East India Company, as results of conquests of Clive, 1765.
4. N.W. Provinces and Oudh .... 1764-1856 By conquests and treaty,
of which the principal dates were 1801-3-14-15. In 1833 the nominal
sovereignty of Delhi, till then retained by the great Mughal, was resigned
into the hands of the East India Company.
Oudh, of which the conquest may be said to have begun with the battle of
Baxar in 1768, was finally annexed in 1856. It was attached as a
commissionership to the N.-W. Provinces in 1879.
5.Central Provinces . . 1802-1817 By conquest and treaty.
6.Burmah .... 1824-1852 Conquest and cession.
7.Punjab .... 1849 Conquest and annexation. Made into distinct province 1859.
8.N.-W. Frontier Province . 1901 Subdivision.
The senior conunissionerships are :
(i)Ajmere and Merwara . . 1818 By conquest and cession.
(ii)Coorg ... 1834 By Conquest and annexation.
(iii)British Baluchistan . . 1841-1876 Conquest and treaty.
(iv)Andaman Islands . . 1858 Annexation
The following is a list of the principal Indian states or agencies which are
more or less under the control of the British government:
Hydarabad,Kashmir,Baroda, Sikkim, Mysore,Shan States, Rajputana States,includmg Udaipur,
Dholpnr,Jodhpur,Alwar,Bikaner,Jhalawar,Jaipur (and feudatories)Tonk,Bhurtpur, Kotah,
Central Indian States, including Indore, Bhopal, Rewa, Gwalior,
Bombay States, Including Cutch, Khairpur (Sind), Kolhapur (and dependencies),
Madras States, including Travancore Cochin Central Provinces States Bastar
Bengal States Cooch Behar Hill Tipperah
N.-W. Provinces States, including Rampur Garhwal
Punjab States, including Patiala Sirmur (Nahan) Bahawulpur Maler Kotla Jind
Faridkot Nabha Chamba Kapurthala Suket Mandi Kalsia
In addition to these there are British tracts known as the Upper Burma
frontier and the Burma frontier. There is also a sphere of British influence
in the border of Afghanistan. The state of Nepal, though independent, has been
since the campaign of 1814-15 in close relations with Great Britain. All these
native states have come into relative dependency upon Great Britain as a
result of conquest or of treaty consequent upon the annexation of the
neighbouring provinces. The settlement of Aden, with its dependencies of
Perim and Socotra Island, forms part of the government of Bombay.
ADMINISTRATION OF THE EMPIRE
This vast congeries of states, widely different in character, and acquired by
many different methods, holds together under the supreme headship of the crown
on a generally acknowledged triple principle of self-government, self-support,
and self-defence. The principle is more fully applied in some parts of the
empire than in others; there are some parts which have not yet reached their
full political evolution; some others in which the principle is tempo-rarily
or for special reasons in abeyance; others, again — chiefly those of very
small extent, which are held for purposes of the defence or advantage of the
whole — to which it is not applicable ; but the principle is generally
acknowledged as the structural basis upon which the constitution of the
empire exists.
In its relation to the empire the home section of the British Isles is
distinguished from the others as the place of origin of the British race and
the residence of the crown. The history and constitutional development of
this portion of the empire will be found fully treated under separate headings.
The total revenue, expenditure, and trade of the home section of the
empire in 1900 were as follows :
Revenue :£119,839,905
Expenditure :£133,976,920
Imports :£563,146,659
Exports :£387,532,633
It is enough to say that for purposes of administration the Indian Empire is
divided into nine great provinces (of which the ninth, the N.-W. Frontier,was
proclaimed in 1901) and four minor commissionerships. The nine great provinces
are presided over by two governors (Bombay and Matlras), four
Leutenant-governors (Bengal, North-West Provinces, the Punjab, and Burma) and
three chief commissioners (Assam, the Central Provinces, and the N.-W.
Frontier Province). The four minor commissionerships are presideil over
each by a chief commissioner. Above these the supreme executive authority in
India is vested in the viceroy in council. The council consists of five
ordinary members besides the existing commander-in-chief. For legislative
pur- poses the governor-general's council is increased by the addition of
sixteen members nominated by the crown, and has power under certain
restrictions to make laws for British India, for British subjects in the
native states, and for native Indian subjects of the crown in any part of the
world. The admin- istration of the Indian Empire in England is carried on by
a secretary of state for India assisted by a council of not less than ten
members. The expenditure of the revenues is under the control of the secretary
in council.
The total revenue, expenditure, and trade of India for 1900 were as follows :
Revenue :£ 67,617,800
Expenditure :£ 64,976,920
Imports :£ 64,185,440
Exports :£ 78,646,690
Colonial governors are classed as governors-general; governors;
lieutenant-governors; administrators; high commissioners; and commissioners,
accord- ing to the status of the colony and dependency, or group of colonies
and dependencies over which they preside. Their powers vary according to the
position which they occupy. In all cases they represent the authority of the
crown.
As a consequence of this organisation the finance of crown colonies is
under the direct control of the imperial government; the finance of
representative colonies, though not directly controlled, is usually influenced
in important departures by the opinion of the imperial government. In
responsible colonies the finance is entirely under local control, and
the imperial govermnent is dissociated from either moral or material
responsibility for colonial debts.
in 1784 of the board of control for India,was created under William Pitt ;
in 1858, on the complete transference of the territories of the East India
Company to the crown, the board of control was abolished, and the India
council, under the presidency of a secretary of state for India, was created.
It was especially provided that the members of the council may not sit in
parliament.
In America
This rough system of self-government for the empire has been evolved not
without some strain and friction, by the recognition through the vicissitudes
of three hundred years of the value of independent initiative in the
development of young countries. Queen Elizabeth's first patent to Sir Walter
Raleigh permitted British subjects to accompany him to America,
"with guarantee of a contuiuance of the enjoyment of all the rights which her
subjects enjoyed at home."
This guarantee may presumably have been intended at the tune only to
assure the intending settlers that they should lose no rights of British
citizenship at home by taking up their residence in America. Its mutual
interpretation in a wider sense, serving at once to establish in the colony
rights of citizenship equivalent to those enjoyed in England, and to preserve
for the colonist the status of British subject at home and abroad, has formed in
application to all succeeding systems of British colonization the unconscious
charter of union of the empire.
It is understood that the principal sections of the empire enjoy equal rights
under the crown, and that none are subordinate to each other. The intervention
of the imperial parliament in colonial affairs is only
admitted theoretically in so far as the support of parliament is required by
the constitutional advisers of the crown.
The view being generally accepted at that time (1845 –1875) that self-governing
institutions were to be regarded as the preliminary inevitable separation.
the closing years of the nineteenth century were marked by a growing
disposition to appreciate the value and importance of the unique position
which the British Empire has created for itself in the world.
The question of self-government is closely associated with the question
of self-support. Plenty of good land and the liberty to manage their own
affairs were the causes assigned by Adam Smith for the marked prosperity of
the British colonies towards the end of the eighteenth century. The same
causes are still to be observed to produce the same effects, and it may be
pointed out that since the date of the latest of Adam Smith's writings, up-
wards of 6,000,000 square miles of virgin soil, rich with possibilities of
agricultural, pastoral, and mineral wealth, have been added to the empire. In
the same period the white population has grown from about 12,000,000 to
52,000,000, and the developments of agricultural and industrial machinery
have multiplied, almost beyond computation, the powers of productive labour.
The British Empire
For the purposes of a general statement, it is interesting to observe that
concurrently with the acquisition of the vast continental areas during the
nineteenth century, the progress of industrial science in application to
means of transport and commmiication brought about a revolution of the most
radical character in the accepted laws of economic development. Railways did
away with the old law that the spread of civilisation is necessarily governed
by facilities for water carriage and is consequently confined to river valleys
and sea-shores. Steam and electricity opened to industry the interior of
continents previously regarded as unapproachable. The resources of these vast
inland spaces which have lain untouched since history began became available
to individual enterprise, and over a great portion of the earth's surface were
brought within the possessions of the British Empire. The production of raw
material within the empire increased at a rate which can only be appreciated
by a careful study of figures.
The tropical and temperate possessions of the empire include every field of
production which can be required for the use of man. There is no main staple
of human food which is not growai; there is no material of textile industry
which is not produced. The British Empire gives occupation to more than one-
third of the persons employed in mining and quarrying in the world.
It may be interesting, as an indication of the relative position in this
respect of the British Empire to the world, to state that at present it
produces one-third of the coal supply of the world, one-sixth of the wheat
supply, and very nearly two-thirds of the gold supply. But while these figures
may be taken as in themselves satisfactory, it is far more important to
remember that as yet the potential resources of the new lands opened to
enterprise have been barely conceived, and their wealth has been little more
than scratched. Population as yet has been only very sparsely sprinkled over
the surface of many of the areas most suitable for white settlement. In the
wheat lands of Canada, the pastoral country of Australasia, and the mineral
fields of South Africa and western Canada alone, the undeveloped resources are
such as to ensure employment to the labour and satisfaction to the needs of
at least as many millions as they now contain thousands of the British race.
In respect of this promise of the future the position of the British Empire
is unique.
It is not too much to say that trade has been at once the most active cause of
expansion and the most potent bond of union in the development of the empire.
The dual policy of Trade with the tropical and,
SETTLEMENT in the temperate regions of the
world formed the basis upon which the foundations of the empire were laid.
Trading companies foimded most of the American and West Indian colonies;a
trading company won India; a trading company colonised the northwestern
districts of Canada; commercial wars during the greater part of the eighteenth
century established the British command of the sea, which rendered the
settlement of Australasia possible. The same wars gave Great Britain, South
Africa, and chartered companies in the nineteenth century carried the British
flag into the interior of the African continent from south and east and west.
Trading companies produced Borneo and Fiji. The bonds of prosperous trade have
kept the Australasian colonies within the empire. The protection of colonial
commerce by the imperial navy is one of the strongest of material links which
connect the crown with the outlying possessions of the empire.
The development of steam shipping and electricity gave to the movements
of trade a stimulus no less remarkable than that given by the introduction
of railroads and industrial machinery to production and manufactures.
These facilities, combined with the enormous additions made to the public
stock of land and labour,contributed to raise the volmne of trade of the
empire from a total of less than £100,000,000 in the year 1800 to a total of
nearly £1,500,000,000 in 1900.
The declared volume of
British exports to all parts of the world in 1800 was £38,120,120, and
the value of British imports from all parts of the world was £30,570,605;
total,£68,690,725.
As in those days the colonies were not allowed to trade with any other country
this must be taken as representing imperial trade.
The exact figures of the trade of India, the colonies,and the United Kingdom
for 1900 were:
imports,: £809,178,209;
exports,: £657,899,363;
total, : £1,467,077,572.
Security and Defence :
A question of sovereign importance to the continued existence of the empire
is the question of defence. A country of which the main thoroughfares are the
oceans of the world demands in the first instance a strong navy. It has of
late years been accepted as a fundamental axiom of defence that the British
navy should exceed in strength any reasonable combination of foreign navies
which could be brought against it. The expense of maintaining such a floating
armament is colossal, and until within the decade of 1890-1900 it was borne
exclusively by the taxpayers of the United Kingdoms. As the benefits of united
empire have become more consciously appreciated in the colonies, and the
value of the fleet as an insurance for British commerce has been recognised,
a desire manifested itself on the part of the self-governing colonies
to contribute towards the formation of a truly imperial navy.
Land defence has hitherto been regarded as forming a secondary branch
of the great question of imperial defence. But though secondary it has been
intimately connected with the development and internal growth of the empire.
In the case of the first settlement of the American colonies they were
expected to provide for their own land defence.
In India the principle of local selfdefence was from the beginning carried
into practice by the East India Company. India has its
own native army, and pays for the maintenance within its frontiers of an
imperial garrison. Early in the summer of 1899, when hostUities in South
Africa appeared to be imminent, the government of the principal colonies took
occasion to express their approval of the policy pursued by the imperial
government, and offers were made by the governments of India, the Australasian
colonies, Canada, Hong-Kong, the Federal Malay states, some of the West
African and other colonies, to send contingents for active service in the
event of war. On the outbreak of hostilities these offers, on the part of the
self-governing colonies, were accepted, and colonial contingents upwards of
thirty thousand strong were among the most efficient sections of the British
fighting force. The manner in which tliese colonial contingents were raised,
their admirable fighting qualities, and the service rendered by them in the
field, have disclosed altogether new military possibilities within the empire,
and the reorganisation of the army on an imperial footing is among the more
probable developments of the near future.special expenditure has been made by
the Indian government upon coast defences armed with modern breechloading
guns. Large sums have also been spent upon external and border defences, and
an establishment of two coast-
defence ironclads, a despatch vessel, two first-class torpedo gunboats, seven
first-class torpedo boats, as well as armed gunboats, etc., is maintained.
THE HISTORY OF BRITISH INDIA
Or Indians seem to have a lot of Afghan BloodCHAPTER I
THE MOHAMMEDAN AND THE MUGHAL EMPIRES [664-1857 A.D.]
Modern critics have remarked with surprise how well the descriptions
of India given by the officers of Alexander the Great portray what we now
behold in that country at the distance of two thousand years. The delicate
and slender forms of the people ; their dark complexion ; their black,
uncurled hair; their cotton raiment; their vegetable food; their training of
elephants to battle; their division into separate castes; the prohibition of
intermarriage from one caste to another; the name of Brachmani or Brahmans to
their priests; the custom of widows burning themselves on the funeral pyres
of their husbands — these and several other particulars which Arrian has
recorded apply to the modern quite as perfectly as to the ancient Hindus.
The progress of Alexander in India itself did not extend beyond the
district of the Punjab, and the navigation of the Indus between that district
and the sea. But on Afghanistan he made a more lasting impression; a dynasty
which he founded in that country is proved by its coins to have subsisted
during several generations; and a monument which he raised even now remains.
When, in May, 1842, a melancholy train of captives, the sur- vivors of the
greatest military disaster that England had ever yet to mourn,were slowly
wending up the mountain passes of Kabul, they beheld, towering high above
them, the column of the Macedonian conqueror.
Many ages after Alexander's expedition, the tide of Mohammedan inva-
sion, which had already overwhelmed the kingdom of Persia, approached the
shores of the Indus and the Ganges. The gentle, unwarlike Hindus were ill
fitted to withstand the enthusiasm of a new religion, and the energy of a
fiercer race. But it is remarkable that, widely as the disciples of the Koran
spread in India, there was never, as in like cases, any amalgamation between
the conquered and the conquerors — between the old faith and the new.
Although the Mohammedans have succeeded in converting almost every man
of almost every other nation that they conquered, and although in India they
formed the sovereign and controlling power in so many states and for so many
years, yet they do not now exceed, and never have exceeded, one-fifth of the
whole Indian population.
THE MOHAMMEDAN CONQUEST (664-1001); MAHMUD OF GHAZNI (997-1026 A.D.)
In volume II we have traced the history of India down to the Mohamme-
dan era, and described the cults of Brahma and Buddha. The first Mussulman
invasions of India go back as far as the seventh century [the first in 664;
the second in 711, under Muhammed Khasim]. They were successful incursions;
but they were not followed by lasting settlements. [In 750 the Hindus revolted
and expelled the Mohammedans.] It was only at the beginning of the eleventh
century that the serious conquest of India was begun under the leadership of
Mahmud of Ghazni.
Mahmud was the descendant of a Turkish adventurer who had created
for himself an independent principality in the mountainous district of Ghazni,
a town situated in Afghanistan, to the south of Kabul. When he appeared in
India, the northwest of the peninsula was divided between several Rajput princes
who, in a greater or less degree, acknowledged the supremacy of the rajah of
Delhi. The rajah of Kanauj,as a descendant of Rama, was lord over the
principalities of Oudh and of the Ganges valley. Bengal and Behar obeyed the
Pal dynasty and Malwa was governed by the successors of Vikramaditya.
Mahmud of Ghazni did not establish his supremacy without difficulty.
The Rajputs, notably the king of Lahore, opposed to him a desperate resistance.
It required no less than seventeen expeditions, between the years 1001 and
1026 to subdue the north of the peninsula. He carried his arms as far as
Guzerat, where he pillaged the temple of Somnath, but he retained lasting
possession only of the Punjab. The Rajputs remained practically independent,
and later on, when the successors of Mahmud extended the Mussulman conquests,
they emigrated into the mountainous regions of Rajputana, to which access was
difficult and where they founded states, that,even under the Mughals [or
Moguls] were never really subdued. Several Rajput dynasties still continue to
reign.
When Mahmud penetrated into India, that country was of an incomparable opulence. The oriental
historians and Mahmud himself have no terms strong enough to express their admiration.
When he entered Muttra, in 1019, Mahmud
was amazed at the splendour displayed on all sides. This is what he wrote on
the subject: "This marvellous city," he said, "encloses more than a thousand structures, the greater number
in marble and as firmly established as the faith of the true believers.
If we reckon the money which all these monuments must have cost, it will not be too much
to estimate it at several millions of dinars, and moreover it must be said that such a city could
not be built even in two centuries. In the pagan temples my soldiers found five idols of gold,
whose eyes were formed of rubies of the value of 50,000 dinars; another idol wore as an ornament
a sapphire, weighing 400 miskals, and the image itself,when melted, yielded 98 miskals of pure gold.
We found besides a hundred silver idols, representing as many camel loads."
Mahmud encountered the same wonders in all the cities he passed through.
On the expedition which he made in 1024, chiefly for the purpose of destroying
the temple of Somnath in Guzerat, Mahmud found a wonderful temple whose
fifty-si.x pillars were covered with plates of gold and had precious stones
scattered all about them; thousands of statues of gold and silver surrounded
the sanctuary. The successors of Mahmud were no less surprised at the wealth
and marvels which they encountered everywhere in India. At Benares, Mahmud of
Ghor destroyed the idols of a thousand temples and loaded four thousand camels
with the booty seized.
He began his conquest by following a very simple method which was employed
with success by all subsequent conquerors, including the English. It consisted
of intervening in the quarrels of the native princes and of profiting by
their rivalries, first to enfeeble them, and afterwards to take possession of
their kingdoms. Having intervened as an ally in a quarrel which divided the
kings of Delhi and Kanauj, he united these two kingdoms and formed a vast
empire, having for borders Benares on the east and Gwalior and Guzerat on the
south; the seat of the government was Delhi.
In 1525 Baber invaded India, won the victory of Panipat over Ibrahim the last
of the Lodi dynasty, and founded the Mughal Empire, which lasted, at least in
name, until 1857
And so on ....subsequently, The Robert clive part and the definitive
Battle of Plassy were all equally very interesting too.
And, what did I get from all this?
I think, the spirit of adventurism , the confidence that I can survive in any part
of the world under any weather or climatic or calamitous conditions ,provided I
keep my eyes and ears open and my wits sharp enough,and my health reasonably
intact has been derived from all this.
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